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    • A number of procedures may

    2018-10-29

    A number of procedures may reduce greatly the risk of ingesting fish-borne nematodes. It is well known that Anisakis spp. migrate from the viscera to the muscle after the death of some species of the fish host (Cipriani et al., 2016; Silva and Eiras, 2003; Smith, 1984; Smith and Wootten, 1975; Tantanasi et al., 2012). Therefore, evisceration of the specimens immediately or shortly after catching is highly recommended. However, it is recognized that this procedure is difficult or even impossible to implement when fishermen are dealing with thousands of specimens. One way to detect infected fish is the examination of fillets by candling on a light table, but again this procedure is not very effective, even though it has been used commonly worldwide, with only 33% of heavily infected fish sometimes being detected (McClelland, 2002). The most efficient ways of preventing infections are the procedures advised by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for treating raw fish: e.g. storing at temperature of −20°C or lower for 7days (total time) or −35°C or lower for 15h; (US FDA, 2011). These procedures may not be suitable for freezing large fish (e.g., thicker than 6in.). It may be necessary to experimentally determine effective control parameters specific for freezing method, fish thickness, fish species, method of preparation, and target Octreotide acetate Supplier (US FDA, 2011). Brining and pickling may also be used to control fish-borne nematodes. Here, the most important factor is the salt level of the brining or pickling solution, and duration necessary to kill the nematodes; for detailed information about these procedures see Adams et al. (1997). Following destruction of the worms by these measures the fish may be consumed raw or undercooked without risk of infection. If the untreated fish are not intended to be eaten raw, a cooking temperature of 60°C for at least 10min prevents infection. The website https://www.food.gov.uk/business-industry/fish-shellfish/freezing-requirement-guidance also provides useful information for the control of fish-borne nematode infection. In Brazil, the legislation related to prevention Octreotide acetate Supplier of infection is not very detailed. The rules concerning fish inspection state that the fish may be frozen at −25°C and then must be kept at −15°C, but the time of freezing at −25°C is not defined. Therefore, the freezing of the potentially fish may not be enough for killing the parasites. Furthermore, specific legislation concerning fish-borne nematodes apparently do not exist in the country. In summary, it is concluded that:
    Acknowledgements This paper was supported by MEC/MCTI/CAPES/CNPq/FAPS. Participation of JC Eiras was partially supported by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) through the COMPETE – Operational Competitiveness Programme and national funds through FCT – Foundation for Science and Technology, under the project “Pest-C/MAR/LA0015/2011”, and by Cesumar (Centro Universitário Cesumar). The authors are grateful to the Editor whose comments and suggestions contributed to the improvement of the paper.
    Introduction The protozoan parasite Cryptosporidium spp. can cause gastrointestinal disease (King and Monis, 2006) in people, including mortality of immunocompromised people, due to the lack of a fully effective anti-cryptosporidial therapy (Dawson, 2005). Cryptosporidium spp. is considered an emerging pathogen (Baishanbo et al., 2005), and is one of the most significant diarrheal pathogens affecting people worldwide (Shirley et al., 2012). Transmission of the parasites is via environmentally-resistant oocysts, which are infectious when excreted in the feces (Baishanbo et al., 2005). Oocysts are transmissible to humans and other animals via direct contact with contaminated fecal material or by contact with, or consumption of, contaminated sources, such as water and food (Dixon et al., 2011). Commercial oysters, worldwide, have been associated with the presence of infectious oocysts (Graczyk et al., 2007). The two main species of Cryptosporidium reported in oysters are C. parvum and C. hominis (Robertson, 2007). Oysters feed by filtering large volumes of seawater and, during this process, they can accumulate and concentrate Cryptosporidium oocysts (Iwamoto et al., 2010; Willis et al., 2013), which are dispersed in seawater where oysters are harvested. It has been documented that, although with a relatively low infection dose (Messner et al., 2001), the accumulation of this parasite in shellfish, if consumed raw, poses a health risk to humans (Robertson, 2007). However, the association of disease with the consumption of raw oysters with cryptosporidiosis has not been documented. This could be due to the long duration between exposure and symptoms of illness, which could last up to 15days (average 7days) (Cacciò and Putignani, 2014), and that most people do not visit a doctor for an infectious gastrointestinal illness (IGI). It has been reported that for every IGI reported, between 310 and 350, on average, are not reported (Majowicz et al., 2005; MacDougall et al., 2007).